Guide to Ethics


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1. Key Concepts in Ethics

  • Moral Absolutism vs. Moral Relativism:

    • Moral Absolutism asserts that there are universal moral principles that apply to all people at all times.
    • Moral Relativism suggests that moral judgments are relative to the cultural, societal, or individual context.

  • Utilitarianism:

    • A consequentialist theory where the rightness of actions is judged by their outcomes. The goal is to maximize overall happiness or utility.
    • Key figures: Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill.

  • Deontology:

    • An ethical theory that emphasizes the importance of following moral rules or duties regardless of the consequences.
    • Key figure: Immanuel Kant.

  • Virtue Ethics:

    • Focuses on the character of the moral agent rather than specific actions or consequences. Virtue ethics emphasizes developing good character traits or virtues.
    • Key figure: Aristotle.

  • Social Contract Theory:

    • Proposes that moral norms arise from an implicit contract or agreement among individuals.
    • Key figures: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

  • Ethical Egoism:

    • The view that individuals should act in their own self-interest. This contrasts with altruistic ethics that focus on the well-being of others.

  • Care Ethics:

    • Emphasizes the importance of interpersonal relationships and care as fundamental ethical considerations.
    • Key figure: Carol Gilligan.

2. Key Thinkers and Their Contributions

  • Socrates (469-399 BCE):

    • Advocated for an ethical life through questioning and dialogue. Famous for the Socratic method.

  • Plato (427-347 BCE):

    • Developed the theory of Forms, which included the Form of the Good, central to his ethical thought.

  • Aristotle (384-322 BCE):

    • Introduced Virtue Ethics and the concept of the "Golden Mean," advocating for moderation in all things.

  • Immanuel Kant (1724-1804):

    • Developed the deontological ethical theory centered around the Categorical Imperative, which requires actions to be universally applicable.

  • Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832):

    • Founder of Utilitarianism, known for his principle of "the greatest happiness for the greatest number."

  • John Stuart Mill (1806-1873):

    • Expanded on Bentham’s Utilitarianism, emphasizing qualitative differences in pleasures.

  • Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900):

    • Criticized traditional moral values and introduced the concept of the "will to power" and the "Übermensch."

  • John Rawls (1921-2002):

    • Developed the theory of Justice as Fairness, introducing the "veil of ignorance" as a method to ensure fairness in social justice.

  • Carol Gilligan (1936-):

    • Known for her work on Care Ethics, highlighting the importance of relationships and context in ethical decisions.

3. Key Moments in Ethical Thought

  • The Trial of Socrates (399 BCE):

    • Socrates was tried and executed for corrupting the youth and impiety. His defense and subsequent death raise profound ethical questions about justice and individual responsibility.

  • The Enlightenment (17th-18th centuries):

    • A period that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority, influencing modern ethical theories like Utilitarianism and Deontology.

  • The Development of Utilitarianism (19th century):

    • The publication of Bentham's and Mill's works marked a significant shift in moral philosophy toward consequentialist thinking.

  • The Holocaust and Human Rights Movement (20th century):

    • These events prompted major ethical discussions on human rights, dignity, and the moral obligations of individuals and states.

4. Notable Quotes

  • Socrates:

    • "The unexamined life is not worth living."

  • Immanuel Kant:

    • "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law."

  • John Stuart Mill:

    • "The only freedom which deserves the name is that of pursuing our own good in our own way."

  • Aristotle:

    • "The good for man is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue.

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5. Book Recommendations

  • "Ethics" by Benedict de Spinoza Spinoza presents a rigorous and rationalist approach to ethics, connecting his moral views with his metaphysical system.

  • "Practical Ethics" by Peter Singer Singer explores contemporary ethical issues through the lens of Utilitarianism, covering topics such as animal rights, euthanasia, and global poverty

  • "Summa Theologica" by Thomas Aquinas: Aquinas' comprehensive work integrates Christian theology with Aristotelian ethics, addressing fundamental questions of morality, law, and virtue.

  • "Leviathan" by Thomas Hobbes: Hobbes’ work on social contract theory and human nature provides a foundational perspective on political ethics and the justification of authority.

  • "Second Treatise of Government" by John Locke: Locke’s exploration of natural rights, government, and property rights has had a profound influence on modern political and moral philosophy.

Modern Ethical Theories

  1. "The Elements of Moral Philosophy" by James Rachels and Stuart Rachels

    • An accessible introduction to various ethical theories, including Utilitarianism, Deontology, and Virtue Ethics, with practical examples.

  2. "Ethics: A Very Short Introduction" by Simon Blackburn

    • A concise overview of key concepts and debates in ethical theory.

  3. "Moral Clarity: A Guide for Grown-up Idealists" by Susan Neiman

    • Neiman offers a thoughtful examination of moral clarity and idealism in contemporary ethical discussions.

Applied Ethics

  1. "The Moral Landscape: How Science Can Determine Human Values" by Sam Harris

    • Harris argues for a science-based approach to ethics, challenging the notion that moral values are subjective.

  2. "Bioethics: Principles, Issues, and Cases" by Lewis Vaughn

    • A comprehensive introduction to bioethics, exploring issues in medical and biological contexts.

  3. "Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do?" by Michael Sandel

    • Sandel examines various ethical dilemmas and theories, offering a thoughtful exploration of justice and moral reasoning.

Historical and Cultural Perspectives

  1. "The History of Western Philosophy" by Bertrand Russell

    • Although not exclusively about ethics, this classic work provides historical context for the development of ethical thought.

  2. "The Ethics of Confucius" 

    • An introduction to Confucian ethics, focusing on virtues, social roles, and moral behavior.

  3. "Utilitarianism" by J. S. Mill

    • Another classic text by Mill, exploring his views on morality and ethics.

Contemporary Discussions and Debates

  1. "The Ethics of Identity" by Kwame Anthony Appiah

    • Appiah discusses the relationship between ethics and identity, including issues of race, nationality, and personal identity.

  2. "Righteous Minds: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion" by Jonathan Haidt

    • Haidt examines the psychological and moral underpinnings of political and religious divisions.

  4. "The Ethical Life: Fundamental Readings in Ethics and Moral Problems" edited by Russ Shafer-Landau

    • This anthology presents key readings on contemporary ethical theories and moral problems, providing a broad view of modern ethical discussions.

  5. "The Moral Limits of the Market: Why Capitalism Can't Be Just" by Michael Sandel

    • Sandel explores the ethical boundaries of market logic, questioning the commodification of various aspects of life.

  6. "After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory" by Alasdair MacIntyre

    • MacIntyre critiques modern moral philosophy and advocates for a return to Aristotelian ethics, arguing for the importance of virtue and community.

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